- Overview of gastrointestinal hormones Colorado State University
- Somatostatin Encyclopaedia Britannica
- Plasma Ghrelin Concentrations Are Lower in Binge-Eating Disorder National Agricultural Library
- Baggio LL et al, 2007, Biology of incretins: GLP-1 and GIP PubMed
- Perry B et al, 2011, Appetite regulation and weight control: the role of gut hormones Nutrition & Diabetes
Gastrointestinal (Gut) Hormones
What are gastrointestinal hormones?
Gastrointestinal hormones are substances secreted in certain parts of the gastrointestinal tract, mainly in the stomach, small intestine and pancreas, that act on other parts of the gastrointestinal tract. They regulate the motility of the gastrointestinal tract and secretion of the digestive juices.
Chart 1. Gastrointestinal Hormones |
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Hormone (site of release) |
Function |
Stimulus for the release |
| Gastrin (stomach) | Stimulation of gastric acid secretion | Amino acids in the stomach |
| Motilin (stomach, small intestine) | Stimulation of bowel motility after meals (bowel housekeeping) | Fasting between meals |
| Cholecystokinin (CKK) (duodenum, jejunum) | Secretion of pancreatic enzymes, gallbladder contraction | Fatty acids and amino acids in small intestine |
| Secretin (duodenum, jejunum) | Secretion of water and bicarbonate from pancreas to neutralize acidity in the small intestine | Acidic pH in the small intestine |
| Ghrelin (stomach and duodenum) [3] | Stimulation of appetite, gastric emptying and growth hormone release | Weight loss, starvation |
| Leptin (fat cells) | Suppression of appetite | |
| Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) | Inhibition of gastric acid secretion and stomach motility; stimulation of glucose-induced insulin secretion | Presence of glucose and fat in the small intestine |
| Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) (pancreas, ileum) [4] | Stimulation of glucose-induced insulin secretion, induction of satiety | Calorie intake [5] |
| Somatostatin (pancreas, other tissues) | Inhibion of insulin, glucagon, gastric acid secretion and digestive enzymes | |
| Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) (pancreas) | Inhibition of pancreatic secretion and gallblader contractions | |
| Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) (small intestine, pancreas) | Water secretion in the bowel, relaxation of lower esophageal sphincter, pylorus and intestinal muscles | |
Alcohol
- Alcohol chemical and physical properties
- Alcoholic beverages types (beer, wine, spirits)
- Denatured alcohol
- Alcohol absorption, metabolism, elimination
- Alcohol and body temperature
- Alcohol and the skin
- Alcohol, appetite and digestion
- Neurological effects of alcohol
- Alcohol, hormones and neurotransmitters
- Alcohol and pain
- Alcohol, blood pressure, heart disease and stroke
- Women, pregnancy, children and alcohol
- Alcohol tolerance
- Alcohol, blood glucose and diabetes
- Alcohol intolerance, allergy and headache
- Alcohol and psychological disorders
- Alcohol and vitamin, mineral and protein deficiency
- Alcohol-drug interactions
- Fructose
- Galactose
- Glucose
- Isomaltose
- Isomaltulose
- Lactose
- Maltose
- Mannose
- Sucrose
- Tagatose
- Trehalose
- Trehalulose
- Xylose
- Erythritol
- Glycerol
- Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates (HSH)
- Inositol
- Isomalt
- Lactitol
- Maltitol
- Mannitol
- Sorbitol
- Xylitol
- Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS)
- Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS)
- Human milk oligosaccharides (HMO)
- Isomalto-oligosaccharides (IMO)
- Maltotriose
- Mannan oligosaccharides (MOS)
- Raffinose, stachyose, verbascose
- SOLUBLE FIBER:
- Acacia (arabic) gum
- Agar-agar
- Algin-alginate
- Arabynoxylan
- Beta-glucan
- Beta mannan
- Carageenan gum
- Carob or locust bean gum
- Fenugreek gum
- Galactomannans
- Gellan gum
- Glucomannan or konjac gum
- Guar gum
- Hemicellulose
- Inulin
- Karaya gum
- Pectin
- Polydextrose
- Psyllium husk mucilage
- Resistant starches
- Tara gum
- Tragacanth gum
- Xanthan gum
- INSOLUBLE FIBER:
- Cellulose
- Chitin and chitosan
- FATTY ACIDS
- Saturated
- Monounsaturated
- Polyunsaturated
- Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)
- Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs)
- Long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs)
- Very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs)
- Monoglycerides
- Diglycerides
- Triglycerides
- Vitamin A - Retinol and retinal
- Vitamin B1 - Thiamine
- Vitamin B2 - Riboflavin
- Vitamin B3 - Niacin
- Vitamin B5 - Pantothenic acid
- Vitamin B6 - Pyridoxine
- Vitamin B7 - Biotin
- Vitamin B9 - Folic acid
- Vitamin B12 - Cobalamin
- Choline
- Vitamin C - Ascorbic acid
- Vitamin D - Ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol
- Vitamin E - Tocopherol
- Vitamin K - Phylloquinone
- Curcumin
- FLAVONOIDS:
- Anthocyanidins
- Flavanols: Proanthocyanidins
- Flavanones: Hesperidin
- Flavonols: Quercetin
- Flavones: Diosmin, Luteolin
- Isoflavones: daidzein, genistein
- Caffeic acid
- Chlorogenic acid
- Lignans
- Resveratrol
- Tannins
- Tannic acid